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The Co-Operative Gene
On the Role of Synergy in Evolution

Peter A. Corning, Ph.D.
Institute for the Study of Complex Systems
119 Bryant Street, Suite 212
Palo Alto, CA 94301 USA

Phone: (650) 325-5717
Fax: (650) 325-3775
Email: pacorning@complexsystems.org

© EVOLUTIONARY THEORY 11:183-207 (1996)

"In civilized society [man] stands at all times in need of the cooperation of and assistance of great multitudes.... man has almost constant occasion for the help of his brethen."

Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations

Although the heuristic value of Richard Dawkins's "selfish gene" metaphor has been considerable, there has been an increasing emphasis in recent years on the role of co-operative phenomena in nature, along with a renewed interest in the evolution of complexity. Various theorists have also advocated a multi-leveled model of evolution, one which focusses on the "vehicles" of selection at various levels rather than on the "replicators". To borrow Dawkins's Necker cube image, it is suggested here that it might be useful to view the evolutionary process from the perspective of the functional effects that are produced by co-operative interactions among various "units" of selection -- genes, genic "interaction systems" (after Sewall Wright), organisms, symbionts, and "superorganisms". This approach is concerned with the "bioeconomics" of co-operation, and it highlights the role of synergy -- combined effects produced by two or more elements, parts or individuals. It is noted that synergy is a multi-levelled phenomenon that can take many different forms. But more important, it is proposed that synergy has played a significant causal role in the evolution of complexity. The interdependent synergistic effects produced by co-operative interactions of various kinds have often provided the proximate causal mechanisms (the functional "payoffs") associated with the differential selection of more complex forms and more inclusive "levels" of organization; underlying the many specific "transitions" in the complexification process, a common functional principle has been operative. Some implications of this perspective are also briefly discussed.

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